ACS Nano · 2026
Untangling copper's two-stage electromigration with in situ 4D‑STEM
Electromigration degrades Cu-Cu direct-bonding lines, yet its mechanism is hard to isolate because competing diffusion pathways act concurrently. Using correlative spatio-temporal mapping by in situ 4D‑STEM, we resolved a two-stage process. Mass transport is first governed by grain-boundary diffusion, then accelerates via surface diffusion once nanovoids nucleate at triple junctions.


